| 總結: | Over the 2004-2019 period, the largest countries in the European Union experienced two phases of major electoral difficulties that proved unfavorable to the majority parties. Firstly, the sovereign debt crisis and the euro crisis of 2009-2012, and the subsequent application of severe austerity policies. Secondly, the political ramifications of the refugee and migrant crisis in 2015-2016. These problems of supranational scope required the European Commission to agree on measures that, in principle, should be applied by national governments. This caused internal conflicts, which let to reverses in the elections at the cost of the national rulers and their parties, clearing a significant electoral space that was occupied by other parties and resulting in changes to the makeup of their party systems.
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